Umlando Biology zokuThuthukisa. Ukuthuthukiswa biology yesimanje

Kusukela ezinsukwini zokuqala zokuphila, ingane ifuna ukuqonda nezwe elibazungezile. Omdala efika, le mnandi futhi kumnandi ke lifezeke. Izwe lishintsha ehambisana nesiphithiphithi. + Futhi abantu bonke akemi ezisathuthuka yayo. Zonke Izinto ezintsha abazitholayo ziye lithunjwa. Iqiniso lokuthi izolo kwakungenakwenzeka, namuhla iba kuyindaba ongavamile. Negalelo elikhulu entuthukweni yesimanje kwezesayensi nakwezobuchwepheshe wenza isayensi biology. It study kuzo zonke izici zokuphila, iveze izigaba umsuka kanye kwemvelo eziphilayo. Kuyaphawuleka ukuthi ngo-igatsha ahlukene kwale sayensi labelwa ukubonwa ngekhulu XIX, nakuba ulwazi isintu emhlabeni iye ukuqongelela kulo ukuthuthukiswa yayo. Emlandweni wesayensi zentuthuko ithakazelisa kakhulu futhi kuyajabulisa. Abantu abaningi bangase babuze: kungani kudingeka sifunde lokhu isayensi? Kunengqondo, noma abathintekayo ososayensi. uzakwenza lokhu isiyalo kumuntu ovamile kanjani? Kodwa ngaphandle ulwazi oluyisisekelo izitho zomzimba womuntu kanye anatomy akunakwenzeka, isibonelo, ukuthola ukusuka ngisho umkhuhlane. Lokhu isayensi uyakwazi ukunikeza izimpendulo zemibuzo enzima kakhulu. Into esemqoka ukuthi kungacacisa biology ukukhanya - ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kokuphila Emhlabeni.

Isayensi endulo

biology Modern elisuka endulo. It is kuhlangene ngokungenakuhlukaniswa ukuthuthukiswa impucuko endulo abahlala kule ndawo yaseMediterranean. Eyokuqala okutholakele kulo mkhakha eyenziwe lezo zibalo eliyingqayizivele njengoba UHippocrates, u-Aristotle, uTheophrastus nabanye. Umnikelo ososayensi ekuthuthukiseni biology kubaluleke kakhulu. Ake eminye imininingwane ngamunye wabo. Udokotela wasendulo ngesiGreki uHippocrates (460 -... CA. 370 BC) wanikeza incazelo yokuqala eningiliziwe Ukuklanywa komzimba womuntu nezilwane. Wakhomba kanjani yizici zemvelo kanye ufuzo ingaba nomthelela ekuthuthukiseni izifo ezithile. Izazi zanamuhla ngokuthi umsunguli imithi Hippocratic. sazi Ezivelele ngesiGreki sefilosofi u-Aristotle (384-322 BC ..) zihlukanisa umhlaba nangokwengeziwe uba imibuso emine: emhlabeni abantu nezilwane, izwe izitshalo, ezingaphili emhlabeni (umhlaba), izwe yamanzi futhi emoyeni. Wenza izinto eziningi zezincazelo kwezilwane, ngaleyo ndlela eziqalisa taxonomy. Isandla sakhe has indatshana ezine eziphilayo, aqukethe lonke ulwazi aziwayo ngesikhathi izilwane. Kulokhu, usosayensi enganikanga kuphela incazelo sangaphandle abamele umbuso, kodwa futhi ecabanga imvelaphi yabo futhi esiphelweni. Waqale wachaza lokuzalwa bukhoma e oshaka futhi khona ekhethekile uhlelo masticatory e-sea urchin zidla, ngokuthi namuhla "lantern Aristotelian." Izazi zanamuhla baziswa ipumelelo sazi lasendulo futhi bakholelwa ukuthi u-Aristotle kuyinto umsunguli wesayensi yempilo yezilwane. Isazi sefilosofi lasendulo ngesiGreki uTheophrastus (370-ca. 280 BC. E.) Ngatadisha emhlabeni zezitshalo. Wachaza abameleli kuka-500 zombuso. Nguye owaqamba imigomo eminingi Botanical ezifana "izithelo", "pericarp", "umongo", njalo njalo. UTheophrastus ososayensi kubhekwa umsunguli wezitshalo yesimanje.

Futhi Kuhle kokusho nemisebenzi ukuthuthukiswa biology izazi Roman ezifana Guy Pliniy Starshy Futhi Klavdiy uGalen (iminyaka 131 - 200) (iminyaka 22-79.). Semvelo Pliniy Starshy wabhala i-encyclopedia, enesihloko esithi "i-Natural History", eyayinekheli zonke zaziwa ngaleso time mayelana eziphilayo. Kuze kube Ephakathi, umsebenzi wakhe siqukethe amavolumu 37, liwukuphela komthombo olunzulu ulwazi mayelana nemvelo. udokotela odumile, udokotela ohlinzayo sefilosofi besikhathi sakhe, Klavdiy uGalen negalelo elikhulu enkululekweni ukuze umqondo nokuthuthukiswa wesayensi ezifana anatomy, kwemithi, izitho zomzimba, Neurology nabanye. Ngo izifundo zakhe, futhi bekholelwa kulokho ezincelisayo kwesidumbu. Waqale echazwe futhi kuqhathaniswa anatomy kwabantu uhlobo lwenkawu olungavamile. Inhloso Its main kwaba ukufunda ephakathi neuropathy isimiso sezinzwa. On ukuqashelwa ngezinkonzo zakhe ukuze nozakwethu iqiniso lokuthi umsebenzi wakhe ku anatomy esekelwe kwesidumbu ezingulubeni nezinkawu wasebenzisa kuze 1543, lize livele umsebenzi Andreas Vesalius 'Ngolweshumi Ukuklanywa komzimba womuntu. " Abafundi ezikhungweni zezempilo ukufunda imisebenzi uGalen kuya kweleshumi XIX. bayihlaba kakhulu inkolelo yakhe wukuthi esebenzisa isimiso sezinzwa izilawuli ubuchopho ukunyakaza, kuyinto esasebenza nanamuhla. Baqonde kangcono indlela ukuvela ekutadisheni lo isayensi phakathi nawo wonke umlando, sisiza etafuleni "Development wezinto eziphilayo." Nazi abasunguli zako ezisemqoka.

imithi medieval

Umnikelo ososayensi ekuthuthukiseni biology kulezi zikhathi omkhulu. Ulwazi izibalo isiGreki sasendulo saseRoma kufakwe umkhuba wakhe odokotela abaningi ngeNkathi Ephakathi. Lokho kwezokwelapha kuyilapho amaningi asethuthukile. Ingxenye enkulu insimu ka ngaphansi koMbuso WaseRoma ngaleso sikhathi eyanqotshwa ama-Arabhu. Ngakho-ke, imisebenzi Aristotle namanye izazi eziningi zasendulo Usufike nathi ukuhunyushwa olimini lwesi-Arabhu. Inkathi kwaphawulwa lokhu ngokuya biology zentuthuko? Lokhu kwakuwumnikelo ka-okuthiwa yokuchuma Islam. Kuyaphawuleka imisebenzi ososayensi ezifana Al-Jahiz, owabe okokuqala waveza umbono wakhe mayelana eziwukudla nokuziphendukela kwemvelo. Nguye owasungula of Determinism womhlaba - isayensi yethonya zezemvelo kwi ukwakheka uhlamvu kazwelonke futhi umoya. Umlobi Kurdish Ahmad Ibn Dawood al-Dinavari kuye kwenza sokuthuthukiswa Arabhu wezitshalo. Wenza incazelo ezingaphezu kuka 637 zinhlobo ezahlukene zezitshalo. Sinesithakazelo esikhulu emhlabeni izitshalo kunjalo kwabaningi ekwelashweni nge amakhambi okwelapha. ubekwe kufinyelelwa udokotela imithi abasePheresiya - Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi. Wabe Ucwaningo waphikisa imfundiso yokuziphendukela ebusayo zikaGalen "ayo amane esibalulekile." udokotela Ezivelele Persian Avicenna idale enye yezincwadi ezibalulekile kakhulu ku imithi ngaphansi kwegama "Canon of Medicine", unencwadi ososayensi European ngokuphelele kwaze kwaba sekhulwini XVII. Kufanele sivume ukuthi phakathi neNkathi Ephakathi idlanzana lososayensi esesikwenzile odumo. Kwakuwusuku inkathi yokuchuma wezenkolo nefilosofi. imithi Scientific oko ukwehla. Lesi simo uyalandelwa kwaze kwaba sekuqaleni Yempucuko. izigaba obengeziwe biology zentuthuko uzobe kuchazwe kulesi sikhathi.

Biology ku Renaissance

Ekhulwini XVI, isithakazelo izitho zomzimba kanye nomlando yemvelo bhe Europe. Anatomists wayekwenza asike izidumbu zabantu zemizimba womuntu ngemva kokufa. Ngo 1543 wakhipha umqulu ncwadi ngokuthi Vesalius 'Ngolweshumi Ukuklanywa komzimba womuntu. " Emlandweni wesayensi zentuthuko yenza round esisha. ekwelapheni amakhambi ayevamile imithi. Yayingeke kodwa kuthinta isithakazelo esikhulayo flora emhlabeni. Fuchs no-Otto Brunfels emibhalweni yakhe wabeka isisekelo sokuba izitshalo ezinkulu kuchazwe. Ngisho abaculi bangaleso sikhathi abangu abanesifiso isakhiwo izidumbu zezilwane nabantu. Bona zaveza izithombe zabo, abambisane ne abayizazi zemvelo. ULeonardo da Vinci Albrecht Dürer e inqubo yokudala yobuciko bakhe bezama ukuthola incazelo eningiliziwe anatomy zemizimba ophilayo. Eyokuqala yalezi, ngasendleleni, ngokuvamile ubukele indiza wezinyoni, watshela zezitshalo eziningi, wabelane ulwazi isakhiwo zomzimba womuntu. Akukho mnikelo zincane isayensi ngaleso sikhathi owenzile futhi ososayensi ezifana alchemy, encyclopedic, odokotela. Isibonelo salokhu angumsebenzi Paracelsus. Ngakho, kusobala ukuthi ukuthuthukiswa biology kwaba engalingani kakhulu esikhathini sangaphambi kaDarwin.

XVII ekhulwini

Tholile ebaluleke kakhulu kulesi sikhathi - lena kuvulwa yokujikeleza kwegazi eliya emaphashini, okwakunginika sikhonzi esaba negalelo elisha ukuthuthukiswa nokwakheka ukubukeka isifundiso nezilwanyana ezincane yesibili. Khona-ke izifundo zokuqala microbiological lentiwe. Ngokokuqala ngqá kwaba incazelo plant cells, okungase kubhekwe kuphela ngesibonakhulu. Le divayisi, ngasendleleni, yasungulwa nguJohane Lippersgeem futhi Zahariem Yansenom e 1590 eHolland. Idivayisi njalo ngcono. Futhi ngokushesha ingcweti Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, wayenesithakazelo nangezibonakhulu, abangu akwazi ukubona futhi luhlaka the abomvu egazi, isidoda womuntu, kanye eziningi eziphilayo ezincane kakhulu eziphilayo (amagciwane, ciliates, nokunye). Development of eziphilayo njengoba isayensi ngalesi sikhathi uya ezingeni elisha lonke. Kuningi okuye kwenziwa emkhakheni izitho zomzimba kanye anatomy. Udokotela waseNgilandi, Uilyam Garvey, wembula isilwane nokuziphatha ucwaningo nge kwegazi legazi, wenza eziningi ezibaluleke: A valve emithambo yegazi, ukwahlukanisa wazibonakalisa ventricles sokunene nesobunxele zenhliziyo. Igalelo lakhe ekuthuthukiseni biology kunzima overestimate. Wavula kwegazi emaphashini. Usosayensi ephuma e-Italiya, Francesco Redi, waba ukungabi nakwenzeka kwento isizukulwane okuzenzakalelayo izimpukane izinsalela inyama ebolile.

Emlandweni wesayensi zentuthuko ekhulwini XVIII

Ngokulandelayo, nomuntu onokwazi e ngesayensi yemvelo ukunwetshwa. Izenzakalo ezibalulekile kakhulu kulelo khulu leminyaka XVIII aqala ukunyatheliswa yemisebenzi noKarla Linneya ( "System of Nature") futhi Georges Buffon ( "Universal kanye nomlando yemvelo yangasese"). Ngamunye wethu wayeqhuba ucwaningo eziningi endaweni yentuthuko zezitshalo nezilwane Embryology. Okutholakele abenziwe izazi ezinjengo Caspar Fridrih Volf, ubani ngesisekelo kokuma yabonisa zavela kancane kancane umbungu we rudiment eziqinile, futhi Albrecht von Haller. Ngalezi amagama axhunyaniswa izigaba ebaluleke kakhulu ekuthuthukiseni of biology Embryology ekhulwini XVIII. It is Nokho, ukuqaphela ukuthi ososayensi idatha baye bakhuthaza izindlela ezahlukene ekutadisheni isayensi: Wolf - imibono epigenetic (ukuthuthukiswa umzimba e ihlumela), kanye Haller - preformation imiqondo (khona kule germ cells kwezakhiwo impahla ekhethekile kusengaphambili ukuthuthukiswa umbungu).

Isayensi ekhulwini XIX

Kuhle kokusho ukuthi ukwakhiwa kwanoma yiliphi biology njengoba isayensi yaze yaqala ngekhulu XIX. Igama kakade wasetshenziswa ososayensi ngaphambili. Nokho, lokho okushiwo kwakuhlukile ngokuphelele. Ngokwesibonelo, uKarl Linney ngokuthi izazi zesayensi yezinto eziphilayo abantu ekwenzeni Umlandvomphilo lezazi zezitshalo. Kodwa kamuva izwi sabizwa ngokuthi isayensi study zonke izinto eziphilayo. Izihloko ezinjengemfundo, ukuthuthukiswa biology zangaphambi kaDarwin esikhathini, siye kakade wathinta on. Ekuqaleni kwekhulu XIX kwaba ukuvela isayensi njengoba paleontology. Okutholakele kule nsimu axhunyiwe enegama usosayensi enkulu - ". The Origin of Species:" uCharles Darwin, ngubani engxenyeni kwekhulu lesibili leminyaka, wanyathelisa incwadi esihloko sithi Ukuze uthole imininingwane eyengeziwe yomsebenzi lakhe, siyakusindiswa ukubhekana esahlukweni esilandelayo. Ukuvela cell theory, ukwakheka phylogenetics, ukuthuthukiswa ukwakheka komzimba womuntu ezincane futhi Cytology, ukwakheka isifundiso nesenzakalo kwezifo ezithathelwanayo ngo zokuthelela lwegciwane ethize, nokunye okuningi - konke okuhlobene ne-ukuthuthukiswa isayensi ekhulwini XIX.

Imisebenzi esikhathini sikaCharles Darwin

Incwadi yokuqala usosayensi enkulu - a "semvelo Izikhangibavakashi emhlabeni wonke ngomkhumbi." Ngaphezu kwalokho, into ukutadisha Darwin baba barnacles. Lokhu kuholele zibhalwe futhi ukushicilelwa eyimiqulu amane phezu physiology lezi zilwane. Lowo msebenzi wakhe Izazi zisekhona. Noma kunjalo, umsebenzi oyinhloko uCharles Darwin - incwadi "The Origin of Species:", yena waqala ukubhalela ku 1837. Incwadi kulekelelwa futhi zibhaliwe izikhathi eziningana. It kabanzi izinhlobo sezilwane ezifuyiwe zezitshalo, okwethulwa imibono yakhe kwemvelo. Kwemvelo biology zentuthuko inkolelo yokungafi Darwin - iyona kokuhlukana zezinto eziphilayo nezinhlobonhlobo bedle ufuzo futhi iziphi izici zangaphandle kwemvelo, kanye imvelaphi yabo yemvelo ezilwaneni ngaphambili. Usosayensi wafinyelela esiphethweni ukuthi iyiphi lwesitshalo noma lwesilwane ngokwemvelo ivame ukuba ngandise exponentially. Nokho, inani labamemezeli kwalesi silwane alushintshi. Lokhu kusho ukuthi uhlobo isenzo umthetho sokusinda. eziphilayo Namandla ukusinda ngokuthenga izimpawu, ewusizo yonke uhlobo, bese wande, futhi ababuthaka - bayabulawa ezindaweni nobutha. Lokhu kubizwa ngokuthi yi (zemvelo) ukuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo. Ngokwesibonelo, ama-cod zesifazane ukhiqiza kuze kufinyelele amaqanda kwezigidi eziyisikhombisa. It uyasinda% 2 kuphela inani eliphelele. Kodwa izimo zemvelo zingase zishintshe. Khona-ke ibe usizo izinhlobo ezahlukene kakhulu izimpawu. Ngenxa yalokho, isiqondiso zemvelo Ukukhetha izinguquko. izimpawu kwangaphandle abantu bangashintsha. Kukhona ukubukeka okusha, okuyinto ebe egcina izici evumayo indaba. Kamuva, ngo-1868, uCharles Darwin enyathelisa incwadi yakhe yesibili ka isiqondiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo ngokuthi "Shintsha zezilwane nezitshalo ngaphansi ukufuywa." Nokho, banawo umsebenzi sakhe singasuki ubhekwa. Kuwufanele basho omunye umsebenzi obalulekile usosayensi omkhulu - incwadi "The Descent of Man kanye nokukhetha ngokocansi". Kuyo wanikeza okuningi agumenti esivuna wokuthi umuntu wavela okhokho kwenkawu-like.

Uzothini XX leminyaka?

Izinto eziningi ezitholwe global kwezesayensi kwakwenziwa kahle kwekhulu leminyaka elidlule. Ngalesi sikhathi, ukuthuthukiswa ukwakheka komuntu inikeza ezingeni elisha. Lena inkathi zofuzo. Ngu-1920, walibumba imfundiso yokuziphendukela chromosomal ufuzo. Futhi ngemva kwempi yezwe yesibili, ngokushesha waqala ukuthuthukisa molecular biology. Ukushintsha izitayela ukuthuthukiswa wezinto eziphilayo.

zofuzo

Ngonyaka ka-1900 babe, ngomqondo ongokomfanekiso, balithola imithetho Mendel sika yizazi ezifana uDe Vries nabanye. Ngokushesha, lokhu kwalandelwa ukwakhiwa kuvulwa Cytology ukuthi izinhlayiya eziyisisekelo zofuzo izakhiwo cell equkethwe kuma-chromosome. Ngo 1910-1915, usosayensi Working Group Thomas Hunt Morgan, ngokusekelwe ucwaningo kanye izithelo fly (Drosophila) isungule okuthiwa "Mendelian chromosome imfundiso yokuziphendukela ufuzo." Izazi zezinto eziphilayo ziye zathola ukuthi izakhi zofuzo kuma-chromosome ahlelwe yemigqa i "buhlalu yezinhlamvu." Kusho uDe Vries - usosayensi wokuqala oye wacwaninga nokucabanga mayelana kuguquka zofuzo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, sanikwa nomqondo drift zofuzo. Futhi ngo-1980, i-physics American zokuhlola Luis Alvarez ezihlongozwayo meteorite hypothesis ukushabalala izibankwakazi.

Ukuvela nokuthuthukiswa oyisazi samakhemikhali ezinto eziphilayo

oluvelele nakakhulu okutholakele ayelinde ososayensi esikhathini esizayo esiseduze. Ekuqaleni kwekhulu XX waqala asebenzayo amavithamini ucwaningo. Kancane ngaphambilini wavula indlela ubuthi nezidakamizwa, amaphrotheni, ama-fatty acid. Eminyakeni 1920-1930 ososayensi uCarl Gerty Cori, noHans Krebs wanikeza incazelo carbohydrate kugucuka. Lokhu kwaba isiqalo ekutadisheni synthesis porphyrins futhi steroid. Ekupheleni kwekhulu, uFritz Lippmann elathola lolu daba ezilandelayo: triphosphate adenosine wayebhekwa othwala jikelele amandla kwamakhemikhali cell, futhi amandla main "esiteshini," wabizwa ngokuthi mitochondria. Amadivayisi for ucwaningo laboratory baba ezingcono, kwakukhona izindlela ezintsha zokuthola izinsuku ulwazi ekuzuzeni, ezifana electrophoresis futhi chromatography. Biochemistry ingenye amagatsha emithi, etholakala isayensi ehlukile.

yamangqamuzana biology

Zonke izifundo ezintsha ezihlobene uvele ekutadisheni biology. Ososayensi abaningi baye bazama ukunquma uhlobo isakhi sofuzo. Ngo ucwaningo le njongo ukuba athathe ihlandla elisha "molecular biology." Into lesi sifundo ku amagciwane namagciwane. bacteriophage sikhethwe - igciwane ukuthi ngokukhetha kuthinta amaseli ezithile amagciwane. Ukuhlolwa nazo iqhutshwe Drosophila, isikhunta isinkwa, ummbila nokunye. Emlandweni wesayensi zentuthuko wukuthi ama-discovery amasha enziwa lapho umuntu eba i imishini emisha ngokuphelele ucwaningo. Ngakho, ngokushesha yasungulwa microscope electron, kanye Centrifuge ngesivinini. Lezi amadivayisi basiza ososayensi ukuba uvule zihlanganisa nesidoda okunikelwe kuma-chromosome iqukethe DNA kunokuba amaprotheni, njengoba kwakucatshangwa phambilini; isakhiwo DNA kwabuyiselwa ifomu siyazi namhlanje, double helix.

genetic engineering

Ukuthuthukiswa biology yesimanje akuyona emi namanje. Ubuchwepheshe bokushintsha izakhi zofuzo - lena enye "eceleni" betadisha lesi siyalo. It is lokhu isayensi, esikukweleta ukubukeka izidakamizwa ezithile, njenge-insulin kanye threonine. Naphezu kweqiniso lokuthi okwamanje at esiteji ukuthuthukiswa nokufunda esikhathini esizayo esiseduze, singase kakade bakwazi ukuba 'banambithe "izinzuzo. Lokhu ngemigomo emisha ngokumelene izifo eziyingozi kakhulu, nezinhlobonhlobo izitshalo kutshalwa musa uhlushwa isomiso, abandayo, izifo, izinambuzane izenzo. Ososayensi abaningi bakholelwa ukuthi usebenzisa impumelelo kwale sayensi, singakwazi bayakhohlwa ukusetshenziswa kwezibulala-zinambuzane eziyingozi kanye yokubulala ukhula. Nokho, ukuthuthukiswa lesi siyalo kwenza umphakathi wanamuhla ukuhlolwa okuxubile. Abantu abaningi besaba aliyona ngaphandle isizathu ukuthi imiphumela yocwaningo ingase ibe ukuvela anenkani nezinye izidakamizwa ejenti izifo eziyingozi kubantu nasezilwaneni.

Okuvunjululwe zakamuva biology imithi

Isayensi aqhubeka aguquka. Namanje eziningi izimfihlakalo elinde ososayensi bethu esikhathini esizayo. Esikoleni namuhla wafunda umlando emfushane ukuthuthukiswa wezinto eziphilayo. Isifundo sokuqala on the subject esinazo ebangeni 6. Ake sibone ukuthi yini izingane zethu uyofunda esikhathini esizayo esiseduze. Nasi uhlu nokwatholakala ukuthi baye wakwazi ukwenza ekhulwini entsha.

1. Le phrojekthi "Human Genome". Umsebenzi kuso kwenziwa ngo-1990. Ngalesi sikhathi, i-US Congress isamba esikhulu imali ibekelwe ucwaningo. 2 kweshumi izakhi zofuzo ziye ziqala ngonyaka 1999. Ngo-2001, waba i-"okusalungiswa" lokuqala zofuzo lomuntu. Ngo-2006, msebenzi waphela.
2. Ukwelapha nge-nanotechnology - ukwelashwa nge microdevices ekhethekile.
3. Izindlela "ezikhulayo" kwezitho zomzimba (isibindi izicubu, izinwele, ama-valve inhliziyo, imisipha amaseli nokunye).
4. Ukudalwa kwezitho zomzimba yokufakelwa, ogama izici akusizi yemvelo (zokwenziwa imisipha nokunye).

Isikhathi lapho kabanzi sifundwa emlandweni wesayensi - 10th banga. Kulesi sigaba, abafundi ukuthola ulwazi ku-biochemistry, Cytology, ukukhiqizwa kabusha eziphilayo. Lolu lwazi lungase lube wusizo abafundi esikhathini esizayo.

Sibukeze izinkathi yentuthuko biology njengoba isayensi ahlukene, kodwa wabuye wembula isiqondiso zako ezisemqoka.