Ukudla okuqinile: izakhiwo, isakhiwo, ukuminyana nezibonelo

ucingo Solid izinto ezinjalo lapho labo abazokwazi ukwakha umzimba futhi abe ivolumu. Uketshezi kanye amagesi bona zihlukaniswa isimo sabo. I ukudla okuqinile kubuyise ukuma umzimba ngenxa yokuthi izinhlayiya zabo abakwazi sebehamba ngokukhululeka besuka ezweni. Ahluke kwabantu babo, ductility, conductivity kagesi nombala. Baphinde babe nezinye izakhiwo. Ngokwesibonelo, iningi lalezi izinto ziya elicibilikile ngesikhathi Ukushisa, ezuza ketshezi isimo ekuhlanganisweni. Ezinye zazo lapho evuthayo ngokushesha gasified (sublimed). Kodwa kukhona futhi lezo sokudiliza ku nezinye izinto.

Izinhlobo ukudla okuqinile

Zonke ukudla okuqinile zihlukaniswe amaqembu amabili.

1. Amorphous, lapho izinhlayiyana ngabanye ahlelwe nemiyalezo. Ngamanye amazwi, abanayo okucacile (ethize) isakhiwo. Lezi ukudla okuqinile kungenziwa bhotela endaweni okuthile okunqunyiwe lokushisa isikhawu. Okuvame kakhulu zalezi zinhlobo zihlanganisa ingilazi ne resin.
2. Crystal, nakho kuthiwa selihlukene laba 4 izinhlobo: athomu, yamangqamuzana, ionic, metallic. I izinhlayiya zitholakala kuphela iphethini letsite, okungukuthi eheleni crystal. geometry yayo izinto ezahlukene ziyahlukahluka kakhulu.

ukudla okuqinile Crystalline sikunqobe amorphous ngobuningi babo.

Izinhlobo ukudla okuqinile crystalline

Cishe kuzo zonke izinto eziqinile akheke crystalline. Ahluke isakhiwo sabo. Ngo crystalline yayo ngehele ISIZINDA aqukethe izinhlayiya ehlukahlukene namakhemikhali. It is ngaphakathi accordance nga kubo, bona besithole amagama abo. Uhlobo ngalunye anezakhi ezithile:

• I-athomu crystal ngehele izinhlayiya okuqinile exhumene ngesibopho covalent. It is zihlukaniswa ngamandla alo. Ngenxa yalokhu, izinto ezifana abe ukuma futhi ukubila. Lolu hlobo kuhlanganisa asebenza ngebhethri futhi idayimane.
• Esikhathini ngehele crystal ngesibopho yamangqamuzana phakathi izinhlayiya libhekene ubuthakathaka bayo. Izinto yalolu hlobo zinezikhathi kalula ukuncibilika abilayo. Basuke izimpawu simo esishubile, ngenxa okuyinto abe iphunga elithile. Lezi ukudla okuqinile kukhona ice, ushukela. Ukunyakaza zishintshe e ukudla okuqinile yalolu hlobo zinezikhathi umsebenzi wabo.
• I ionic crystal ngehele e ISIZINDA alternate izinhlayiya abafanele icala omuhle futhi omubi. Basuke aphethwe Luhambo electrostatic. Lolu hlobo ngehele likhona alkalis, nosawoti, oxides eziyisisekelo. izinto eziningi lolu hlobo zitholakala kalula oncibilikayo emanzini. Ngenxa ngempela obuqinile phakathi ion kukhona refractory. Cishe bonke bangabafundi ayinaphunga, ngoba izimpawu ze-non-simo esishubile. Izinto nge ngehele ionic bengasakwazi ukuqhuba izifundo kagesi, njengoba ukubunjwa yabo kungekho electron khulula. Isibonelo esingokoqobo the ion okuqinile - usawoti. Onjalo ngehele crystal ulunika ziyaqothuka. Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi noma yiziphi shift yayo kungabangela ion amabutho okunyanyekayo.
• Eheleni metallic crystal kuphela amakhemikhali ion zikhona ISIZINDA, nakanjani icala. Phakathi kwabo kukhona electron khulula ngokusebenzisa oludlula kakhulu energy ezishisayo kagesi kanye. Yingakho iyiphi izinsimbi sici ezahlukene ezifana conductivity.

imiqondo Jikelele okuqinile

Ukudla okuqinile futhi izinto - kungcono cishe into efanayo. Le migomo okukhulunywe omunye 4 zithi wokuhlanganisa. Ukudla okuqinile ube nohlobo esitebeleni nobunjalo ezinyakazayo ezishisayo-atom amancanyana. Lesi sakamuva ukwenza oscillations elincane eliseduze izikhundla zilingana. Yegatsha isayensi ekubhekaneni ekutadisheni ukwakheka kanye Sakhiwo sangekhatsi, ukubizwa ngokuthi physics okuqinile-state. Kukhona nezinye izindawo ezibalulekile yolwazi ehilelekile izinto ezinjalo. Ukushintsha ukuma amathonya zangaphandle kanye motion ngokuthi Mechanics zemizimba deformable.

Ngenxa izakhiwo ezahlukene ukudla okuqinile, ziye zasetshenziswa amadivayisi ahlukahlukene lobuchwepheshe adalwe indoda. Ngokuvamile ngesisekelo ukusetshenziswa yawo kwakuyilawa izakhiwo ezifana ubulukhuni, ivolumu, sisindvo, kuyaqina, plasticity, brittleness. Isayensi yanamuhla ingasetshenziswa kanye nezinye izimfanelo kwezinto eziqinile okuyinto kungatholakala kuphela endaweni yokucwaninga.

Kuyini crystal

Okunamandla - umzimba okuqinile ibekwe ngendlela izinhlayiya ezithile. Ngamunye chemical has isakhiwo ayo. Ama-athomu omoya kwalo akha ukustaka emithathu dimensionally gqwa ngokuthi ngehele. izinto okuqinile abe ezahlukene isakhiwo wesimethri. isimo crystalline Solid kubhekwa ezinzile, ngoba inani lemali elincane amandla ezingaba khona.

Iningi izinto eziqinile (zemvelo) siqukethe inqwaba ngezikhathi ngamakhasimende okusanhlamvu ngabanye (crystallites). Izinto ezinjalo zibizwa ngokuthi polycrystalline. Lezi zihlanganisa Alloys lobuchwepheshe nezinsimbi, kanye eziningi amatshe. Monocrystalline ngokuthi zinhlayiya zemvelo noma zokwenziwa olulodwa.

Emizimbeni okuqinile kakhulu ezifana akhiwa isimo isigaba liquid, okufakiwe zigcwale amanzi noma isixazululo. Ngezinye izikhathi, basuke ethathwe isimo gaseous. Le nqubo ibizwa ngokuthi crystallization. Siyabonga intuthuko yesayensi kanye lobuchwepheshe inqubo ukutshalwa (zamagama) izinto ezihlukahlukene ekhiqizwa ngezinga ezimbonini. Iningi zinhlayiya has simise engokwemvelo polyhedron ejwayelekile. osayizi zabo zihlukene kakhulu. Ngokwesibonelo, asebenza ngebhethri yemvelo (rock crystal) esikhulile ingaba nesisindo amakhulu khilogremu, futhi amadayimane - kuze kube amagremu ambalwa.

Ngo ukudla okuqinile amorphous, ama-athomu ku oscillation njalo emhlabeni amaphuzu ngezikhathi elise. Bona ukugcina ezinye oda short-range, kodwa akukho imiphumela yesikhathi eside ezayo. Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi ama-molecule awo ahlelwe buqamama ukuthi ingafaniswa Ngokuvumelana nobukhulu bazo. Okuvame kakhulu ekuphileni kwethu isibonelo salokhu isimo okuqinile lwengilazi. izinto amorphous zivame ithathwa njengendlela ketshezi nge viscosity ngokungenamkhawulo enkulu. Isikhathi crystallization kuba ngezinye izikhathi eziningi kangangokuthi ayiboniswa.

Ukuthi izindawo ezingenhla yalezi izinto ngibenze esiyingqayizivele. ukudla okuqinile amorphous ezibhekwa engazinzile ngoba ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ungaya ku isimo crystalline.

Ama-molecule, ama-athomu, zazo yakhiwa okuqinile igcwele high density. Bona cishe balondoloza isikhundla sabo isihlobo mayelana nezinye izinhlayiya bese zibanjwa ndawonye ukuxhumana aphakathi. Ibanga phakathi molecule esiqinile bacondze etindzaweni letehlukene libizwa ipharamitha crystal ngehele. Isakhiwo izidakamizwa futhi wesimethri yayo ichaze sebuningini izakhiwo ezifana electron band, cleavage futhi yokukhanya. Lapho wadalula amabutho okuqinile ngokwanele ezinkulu, lezi zimfanelo kungenzeka ucishe i-. Uma lokhu amenable ukusonteka okuqinile asalile.

Athomu zemizimba okuqinile oscillate, okuyinto ngenxa ifa energy ezishisayo. Njengoba ziyizidalwa azinakwa, bayazibuza nje kumelwe kugujwe ngaphansi kwezimo zelabhorathri. I ukwakheka kwama-molecule ye ukudla okuqinile kakhulu ezithinta izakhiwo zalo.

Lolu cwaningo kwezinto eziqinile

Izakhiwo izakhiwo lezi zinhlobo zezindwangu, izinga kanye nezinhlayiya yabo ezinyakazayo wafunda zezigatshana ezehlukene okuqinile isimo physics.

Ukuze lolu cwaningo esetshenzisiwe: umsakazo spectroscopy, kuhlatiya sakhiwo usebenzisa X-ray kanye nezinye izindlela. Ngaloko lifunde izakhiwo mechanical, ngokomzimba futhi ezishisayo kwezinto eziqinile. Nobulukhuni, ukucindezeleka ukumelana, namandla eqine, isigaba ukuguqulwa study Materials. It kakhulu ligamanxa yemvelo ka ukudla okuqinile. Kunenye isayensi ezibalulekile yesimanje. Ukuze ukufunda ekhona futhi Kuhlanganisa izinto ezintsha labetibambile okuqinile isimo kwamakhemikhali.

Izici ukudla okuqinile

Uhlamvu ezinyakazayo zangaphandle electron kuma-atom okuqinile inquma eziningi impahla yayo, isibonelo, kagesi. Kukhona 5 amakilasi zemizimba ezinjalo. Ayakhululwa kuye ngohlobo zama-athomu:

• Ionic, isici eziyisisekelo okuyinto amandla Luhambo electrostatic. Timphawu: ukucabangisisa ukumuncwa ukukhanya esifundeni infrared. Ngezinye lokushisa ongaphakeme, isibopho ionic libhekene ongaphakeme conductivity kagesi. Isibonelo izinto ezinjalo usawoti sodium ka hydrochloric acid (NaCl).
• Covalent eyenziwa ngezithukuthuku i pair electron, elingelakwaJuda-athomu. isixhumanisi okunjalo uhlukaniswe: olulodwa (owodwa), kabili futhi kathathu. La magama abonisa khona electron ngazimbili (1, 2, 3). izibopho kabili bese kathathu abizwa ngokuthi nezimpinda. Kunenye division leqembu. Ngakho, kuye ngokuthi ukusatshalaliswa electron kwabantu angawodwa isibopho elimboze izindawo ezibandayo kanye nonpolar. Kumiswa wokuqala ngo-athomu omoya-ezahlukene, kanti eyesibili - alinganayo. isimo esinjalo esiqinile ndaba, izibonelo okuyizinto - sedayimani (C) ne-silicon (Si), ebonakala kwabantu bayo. zinhlayiya Iningi ziqinile nje isibopho covalent.
• Metal kwakhiwa ngokuhlanganisa electron Valence zama-athomu. Ngenxa yalokho, kukhona Imininingwane electron ifu okuyinto dengwane bedle i voltage kagesi. kwakhiwa Metal isibopho uma la ma-athomu kunenze nisondelane eside. Lokho bayakwazi ukunikela ama-electron. izinsimbi eziningi, compounds eziyinkimbinkimbi kwalesi sibopho yakheke isimo esiqinile ndaba. Izibonelo: i-sodium, barium yombala, aluminium, zethusi, igolide. compounds Non-metallic okulandelayo: AlCr _2, Ca ₂ Cu, Cu ₅ Zn _8. Izinto nge kunenze nisondelane metal (izinsimbi) zahlukahlukene e izakhiwo ngokomzimba. Kungenzeka okusamanzi (HG), elithambile (Na, K), kunzima kakhulu (W, NB).
• Yamamolekhula zingaveli amakristalu akhiwa izinhlayiya zishintshe ehlukile ndaba. It libhekene izikhala phakathi molecule ngeqanda electron kwabantu. Force ngokuxhumanisa ama-athomu kulezi zinhlayiya kukhona eside. Ngesikhathi ama-molecule efanayo basuke bakhangwa ezinye ababuthakathaka kuphela ngayinye aphakathi. Yingakho izixhumanisi phakathi kwazo ayafa kalula ukushisa. Zokuxhumana phakathi kwama-athomu igoqe nzima nakakhulu. isibopho kwamangqamuzana akusekelwe ihlukaniswe orientation, ukuhlakazwa kanye lokungeniswa. Isibonelo into enjalo okuqinile kuyinto methane.
• Hydrogen, okuyinto eyenzeka phakathi kwama-athomu omuhle lihlukaniswe noma molecule zalo omubi lihlukaniswe kuyizinhlayiyana ezincane kunazo zonke i-molecule noma ezinye izingxenye. Lezi ubudlelwane akunakubangelwa ice.

Izakhiwo ukudla okuqinile

Yini esiyaziyo namuhla? Ososayensi baye eside sekuyisikhathi utadisha izakhiwo zombuso okuqinile izinto. Lapho wadalula okushisa ukuyishintsha. Inguquko ye uketshezi emzimbeni libizwa ukuncibilika. Ukuguqulwa okuqinile esimweni gaseous libizwa Sublimation. Nge nokuncipha lokushisa kwenzeka crystallization okuqinile. Ezinye izinto ngaphansi kwethonya amakhaza idluliselwe esigabeni amorphous. Le nqubo ibizwa ngokuthi ososayensi vitrification.

In isigaba ukuhwebelana kushintsha Sakhiwo sangekhatsi ukudla okuqinile. I ukuhleleka kuka eliphakeme ke okuhlukeneko lokushisa lehliselwa. Ngezinye umfutho womoya kanye lokushisa T> 0 K iyiphi into ekhona ngokwemvelo, eqinisa. helium kuphela, kuyadingeka ukucindezela 24 atm crystallization okuyinto, kuyinto ukukhishelwa lo mthetho.

isimo Solid ulunika izakhiwo ezahlukene ngokomzimba. Zichaza ukuziphatha ezithile emizimbeni bedle emikhakheni ethile namabutho. Lezi izindawo zihlukaniswe amaqembu. 3 Ukwabela ukuchayeka indlela elihambisana ezintathu izinhlobo zamandla (mechanical, ezishisayo, kagesi). Ngakho khona amaqembu amathathu Izakhiwo kwezinto eziqinile:

• izakhiwo Mechanical ezihlobene ukucindezeleka futhi ukusonteka zemizimba. Ngokusho nalezi zindlela, le ukudla okuqinile zihlukaniswe nokunwebeka, rheological, amandla nobuchwepheshe. Okunye umzimba kugcina ezakheke, kodwa kungashintshwa amandla zangaphandle. Kulokhu kungase ukusonteka plastic (buka kokuqala ababuyelanga), nokunwebeka (ubuyela ukuma yokuqala) noma elimazayo (lapho kombundu ethile onakala / ikhefu). Buyekeza la imizamo ukuchaza moduli nokunwebeka. Solid umelana hhayi kuphela kokucindezelwa, elula, kodwa futhi usekhuluma, ezimazombe kanye eguqa. amandla umzimba eqinile nakho ngeke kusize ukuba simelane ucingo impahla yakhe yacekeleka phansi.
• Thermal wabonakaliswa ngaphansi kwethonya Amasimu ezishisayo. Enye yezindlela ezibaluleke kakhulu izakhiwo - ukuma, lapho umzimba abaphendukile ukuba isimo uketshezi. It is ebonwe ukudla okuqinile crystalline. emizimbeni amorphous ifa ukushisa esicashile Fusion, njengoba inguqulelo kwabo isimo uketshezi lapho izinga lokushisa ophakamayo kancane kancane. Lapho ufika a ukushisa komzimba ezithile amorphous ilahlekelwa umswakama waso bese kuba plasticity. Lesi simo kusho ukuzuzwa lokushisa yabo ingilazi inguquko. Lapho Ukushisa kwenzeka ngendlela elukhuni umzimba ukusonteka. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngokuvamile yandisa. Quantitatively, kulesi simo elinesimo isici esithile. lokushisa umzimba kuthinta izakhiwo mechanical ezifana flowability, plasticity, ukuqina kanye namandla.
• IElectromagnetic elihlobene ne ukuchayeka okuqinile microparticles notshwala futhi amagagasi kagesi rigidity okusezingeni eliphezulu. Lezi zihlanganisa probation futhi izakhiwo radiative.

isakhiwo band

I ukudla okuqinile abangu kuhlukaniswe futhi okuthiwa isakhiwo band. Ngakho, phakathi kwabo kukhona avelele:

• Babashayeli, ungachazwa ukuthi conductivity futhi Valence bands kuyenzeka ihlangane. Ngakho ama-electron Ungahambisa phakathi kwabo, ithela amandla kulencane. Ukuze babashayeli kukhona zonke izinsimbi. Lapho kwakhiwa i kagesi ukuze abe umehluko umzimba okunjalo (ngenxa ukunyakaza mahhala electron phakathi amaphuzu nge ephansi futhi uvundile).
• Dielectrics, okuyinto izindawo musa abaphila. Isikhawu phakathi kwabo mkhulu kunezinhliziyo 4 ev. Ukuze siqhube electron kusukela Valence ukudinga enkulu amandla conduction band. Ngenxa yalaba izakhiwo dielectrics cishe non-conductive.
• Semiconductors, libhekene engekho conduction futhi Valence bands. Isikhawu phakathi kwazo lincane 4 ev. Ukuze ukudluliselwa electron kusukela Valence kuya band conduction kudinga amandla esingaphansi dielectrics. Pure (unalloyed futhi eigenfunctions) Semiconductors kabi zamanje sidlulile.

ezinyakazayo Yamamolekhula ku ukudla okuqinile kubangele izakhiwo zabo kagesi.

nezinye izakhiwo

Ukudla okuqinile bahlukene futhi izakhiwo zabo kazibuthe. Kukhona amaqembu amathathu:

• izakhiwo Diamagnetic ezincike kancane lokushisa noma isimo uquqaba.
• Paramagnetic, okubangelwa ua electron conduction nezikhathi kazibuthe ukuzulazula kwama-athomu. Ngokusho Curie ezifweni zabo incipha njengoba lokushisa. Ngakho, ngo-300 K kuba 10 ^-5.
• Umzimba kazibuthe nge isakhiwo ngaphambilini kokuba imiphumela yesikhathi eside ezayo ukuze zama-athomu. Ngo ISIZINDA we ngehele kuthiwa ngezikhathi wahlela izinhlayiya nge zikhathi kazibuthe. Lezi ukudla okuqinile futhi izinto ezisetshenziswa njalo kuyo yonke imikhakha yomsebenzi womuntu.

Ingqikithi sekukaningi ngokwemvelo

Yiziphi? ukudla okuqinile kwabantu zinquma ubulukhuni yabo. Eminyakeni yamuva, ososayensi baye bathola izinto eziningana ukuba abathi "umzimba isikhathi eside kunazo zonke." okuqinile kakhulu - ke fullerite (crystal molecule nge fullerene), okuyinto mayelana izikhathi 1.5 kunokukwenza idayimane. Ngebhadi-ke, okwamanje lutholakala kuphela izinto eziningi ezincane kakhulu.

Kuze kube manje, ketshezi sekukaningi, okungase kube kamuva obusetshenziswa embonini - lonsdalite (olunezinhlangothi idayimane). He is 58% kunokukwenza idayimane. Lonsdalite - ukuguqulwa allotropic carbon. crystal wayo ngehele kuyafana nedayimani. Lonsdaleite iseli iqukethe 4 ama-athomu, kodwa idayimane - 8. zinhlayiya lisetshenziswa ngokuvamile namuhla iyona idayimane sekukaningi.