Isakhiwo amakhemikhali izinto

Kwaphela isikhathi eside ososayensi baye bazama ukuletha umbono esihlanganisiwe echaza isakhiwo zishintshe, izakhiwo zabo bachazwa maqondana nezinye izinto. Ukwenza lokhu, kwadingeka lichaze nemvelo kanye nesakhiwo ye-athomu, ukwethula "Valence we" umqondo "electron ukuminyana" kanye nabanye abaningi.

Ingemuva theory

I chemical isakhiwo zezinto zokuqala nesithakazelo Italian Amadeus Avogadro. Waqala ukufunda isisindo yamangqamuzana yamagesi ehlukahlukene ngesisekelo imibono yabo ukubeka phambili umbono ocatshangelwayo mayelana nokwakheka kwawo. Kodwa hhayi ngowokuqala nokubika kwaba khona, walinda kwaze nozakwabo uthole imiphumela efanayo. Ngemva kwalokho, indlela ukuthola isisindo yamangqamuzana amagesi seyaziwa ngokuthi umthetho Avogadro sika.

Imfundiso entsha kuye kwashukumisela abanye ososayensi bakwazi ukucwaninga. Phakathi kwabo kwakukhona Lomonosov, Dalton, Lavoisier, Proust, uMendeleyev futhi Butlerov.

ithiyori Butlerova

Inkulumo ethi "inkolelo-mbono yokuziphendukela isakhiwo sazo sekhemikhali" bavela okokuqala umbiko isakhiwo izinto, okuyinto ngo-1861 emelelwa eJalimane Butlerov. Wangena ezingaguquliwe izincwadi eyalandela kugxilile emibhalweni yaminyaka yonke emlandweni wesayensi. Kwakuyisikhathi kuzalwa a eyeza nezazi zezinkanyezi ezikhuluma entsha ambalwa. Ephephabhukwini lakhe, usosayensi kushiwo umbono wakhe siqu isakhiwo amakhemikhali izinto. Nazi ezinye iziphakamiso zakhe:

- zama-athomu molecule axhumene esekelwe inani electron orbitals zabo zangaphandle ngapha nangapha;
- ekushintsheni ukulandelana uxhumano zama-athomu kubangela ushintsho sezindawo engqamuzaneni kanye ukubukeka into entsha;
- zamakhemikhali ngokomzimba izakhiwo izinto zincike hhayi nje kuphela ngalokho athomu abayingxenye yayo, kodwa futhi oda uxhumano kwabo komunye nomunye, futhi ukuphazamiseka mutual;
- ukuze sithole Ukwakheka ezinto athomu we impahla, kubalulekile ukuqhuba uchungechunge kugucuka ngokulandelana.

Isakhiwo weJiyomethri zishintshe

Isakhiwo amakhemikhali-atom amancanyana kanye nama-molecule yaqedwa eminyakeni emithathu kamuva Butlerov. Sethula kwezesayensi lo mkhuba isomerism, postulating ukuthi, ngisho kokuba ukwakheka qualitative kodwa isakhiwo ezahlukene efanayo, into wawuzohluka nomunye ezintweni eziningi izinkomba.

Ngemva kweminyaka eyishumi, kukhona isifundiso isakhiwo ngakuthathu zishintshe. Konke kuqala lapho kunyatheliswa le van't Hoff kakhulu inkolelo yakhe yokuziphendukela valences kohlelo quaternary carbon athomu. ososayensi Modern ukuqaphela izinkomba ezimbili stereochemistry: kwesakhiwo ngekwendzawo.

Ngakwelinye ihlangothi, ingxenye kwesakhiwo naye ehlukene ku isomers skeleton neziqondiso. Lokhu kubalulekile ekuhloleni izinto eziphilayo lapho Ukwakheka qualitative ezimile kanye ashukumisayo owabeka kuphela hydrogen ne-carbon athomu zezakhi futhi ukulandelana kwazo engqamuzaneni.

isomerism Spatial kuyadingeka kulezo zimo, lapho ama-athomu ahlelwe ngokulandelana efanayo lapho kukhona uxhumano, kodwa esikhaleni engqamuzaneni lihlukile. isomers gqwa optical (lapho stereoisomers isibuko nomunye), diastereoisomers, isomers weJiyomethri, nabanye.

Atoms e molecule

Classical chemical isakhiwo engqamuzaneni kusho abaqukethwe athomu. Ngombandela, kuyacaca ukuthi Atom e-molecule ingahluka futhi ingahluka futhi izakhiwo zalo. Kuya ngokuthi amanye ama-athomu bayamhaqa, ibanga phakathi kwabo kanye izixhumanisi ukuthi ahlinzeke molecule amandla.

Izazi zanamuhla, abafisa ukuvumelanisa kwezinto jikelele futhi imfundiso quantum, kuthathwa ngokuthi isikhundla sokuqala ngenxa yokuthi ngesikhathi kumiswa ye-athomu ye-molecule awuyeka kuphela core, futhi ama-electron, futhi akabe esaba khona. Yiqiniso, kule ekwenziweni azenzekanga ngokushesha. imizamo eziningana benziwa ukulondoloza athomu njengoba iyunithi engqamuzaneni, kodwa abakwazanga ukuhlangabezana izingqondo olukhuni.

Isakhiwo, ukwakheka kwamakhemikhali amaseli

Umqondo "Ukwakheka" kusho inyunyana of bonke izinto abathintekayo ukwakheka kanye cell umsebenzi. Uhlu kuhlanganisa pheze zonke izingxenye ishadi lesikhathi:

- izakhi ayisishiyagalombili nesithupha zihlale khona;
- amabili nanhlanu kulo bayizinkulungwane deterministic ngoba ukuphila okuvamile;
- mayelana amabili ngampela.

abawinile Five kuvula okuqukethwe oxygen kuseli kuziwa amaphesenti ayisikhombisa nanhlanu kuseli ngayinye. Lakhiwa noqhekeko yamanzi adingekayo ukuze cell kwezimila futhi inikeza amandla ukuze ukusabela okunye ukuxhumana kwamakhemikhali. Okulandelayo ku ukubaluleka - carbon. Kuyinto ngesisekelo zonke izinto eziphilayo kanye substrate for photosynthesis. Bronze uthola hydrogen - element luningi kunawo wonke endaweni yonke. Libuye libe ingxenye organic kwakwakhe ezishaywayo ne-carbon. Amanzi eqakathekileko. indawo ahloniphekile wesine kuhlala nitrogen ezidingekayo ukuze kwakhiwe-amino acid kanye, ngenxa yalokho, amaprotheni, ama-enzyme ngisho amavithamini.

Isakhiwo amakhemikhali amaseli izakhi ezingadumile kakhulu ezifana calcium, phosphorus, i-potassium, i-sulphur, chlorine, sodium, kanye magnesium. Ndawonye, kwakha mayelana eyodwa amaphesenti isamba ketshezi kuseli. Izimali nazo ukulandelela izakhi kanye ultramicroelements eziqukethwe eziphilayo e trace amanani.