Yiziphi carbohydrate indima carbohydrate emzimbeni womuntu

izakhiwo Chemical kwamaseli abakha eziphilayo ngokuyinhloko ixhomeke ekutheni kuma-athomu e-carbon akha kufika ku-50% ngo-isisindo ezomile. Ama-athomu omoya-Carbon kuyizinto eziyinhloko izinto eziphilayo: amaprotheni, amino nucleic, lipids kanye carbohydrate. Iqembu yokugcina kuhlanganisa carbonyl lemagalagala amanzi elihambisana ifomula (CH ₂ O) _n, lapho u-n esilingana noma mkhulu kunezinhliziyo ezintathu. Ngaphandle kwe-carbon, i-hydrogen ne-oxygenation, e-molecule kungafaka phosphorus, i-nitrogen, isibabule. Kulesi sihloko, sihlola indima carbohydrate emzimbeni womuntu, kanye nezici isakhiwo sabo, izakhiwo nemisebenzi.

ngezigaba

Leli qembu compounds e-biochemistry zihlukaniswe izigaba ezintathu: ushukela elula (monosaccharides), anezela polymeric nge nokuxhumanisa glycosidic - oligosaccharides futhi biopolymers ephezulu isisindo yamangqamuzana - polysaccharides. Lezinhlobo oshiwo ngenhla lomcebo ezitholakala cell izinhlobo ezahlukene. Ngokwesibonelo, kukhona glucose ne isitashi plant izakhiwo, glycogen - e hepatocytes womuntu, futhi iseli izindonga isikhunta, le chitin - ku yangaphandle skeleton eyisinambuzane. Zonke izinto ezingenhla - kukhona carbohydrate. Indima carbohydrate umzimba jikelele. Bona - umphakeli main uthola amandla ngenxa yezinqubo ezibalulekile zezitshalo amaseli, ama-bacterium, izilwane kanye nabantu.

monosaccharides

Yiba jikelele ifomula C _n H _{2 n} O _n futhi zihlukaniswe amaqembu kuye kuma-athomu e-carbon e-molecule: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, nokunye. Njengoba ingxenye organelles cell kanye cytoplasm ushukela elula abe ukucupha ezimbili ngekwendzawo: komugqa futhi isiyingi. Esimweni sokuqala, ama-athomu carbon axhunyiwe omunye komunye nge covalent izibopho sigma futhi ifomu ivaliwe izihibe, esimweni sesibili lwamathambo carbon ayivaliwe futhi kungenzeka ekhelini. Ukuze ubone ukuthi yini indima carbohydrate emzimbeni, cabanga ezivamile wabo - the pentose futhi hexose.

Isomers: glucose ne fructose

Sinenkosi efanayo ifomula yamangqamuzana C ₆ H ₁₂ O _6, kodwa ezinye izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zama-molecule kwesakhiwo. Siye ngaphambilini ngokuthi indima eyinhloko carbohydrate eziphilayo - amandla. abaphukile I izinto ngenhla phansi esitokisini. Umphumela ukukhishwa wamandla (17.6 kJ elilodwa igremu glucose). Ngaphezu kwalokho, 36 molecule ATP is kuhlelwe umqondo. noqhekeko glucose kwenzeka ku ulwelwesi (cristae) mitochondria futhi imele uchungechunge ukusabela enzymatic - umjikelezo Krebs. He is kuyingxenye ebalulekile dissimilation ageleza kuyo yonke amaseli heterotrophic eziphilayo eukaryotic.

Glucose is bakha myocytes e ezincelisayo ngenxa eqhekeza ezicutshini glycogen. Esikhathini esizayo, isetshenziswa njengoba nemiyo kalula decomposable nokunikeza amaseli nge amandla - lena indima eyinhloko carbohydrate emzimbeni. Izimila kukhona phototrophs futhi ngokuzimela yakha glucose phakathi i-photosynthesis. Lezi ukusabela abizwa ngokuthi Calvin umjikelezo. Indaba kokuqala kuyinto carbon dioxide futhi acceptor - ribolozodifosfat. Synthesis glucose kwenzeka kuleli matrix chloroplast. Fructose, kokuba ifomula yamangqamuzana efanayo glucose, iqukethe e-molecule iqembu obusebenzayo ketones. Ungishiya imnandi kunezinyosi glucose, futhi uju kanye umpe izithelo kanye izithelo. Ngakho, indima begazi carbohydrate emzimbeni amanga ikakhulukazi elisetshenziswa njengoba umthombo okusheshayo amandla.

Indima ufuzo ku pentose

Ake sicabangele esinye iqembu monosaccharides - ribose futhi deoxyribose. ulimi lwawo luhluke itholakala lokuthi ukuthi ayingxenye polymers - acid nucleic. Ngoba zonke izinto eziphilayo, kuhlanganise nezinhlobo ukuphila non-amaselula, i-DNA ne-RNA kukhona abathwali ezinkulu zolwazi sitholwa njengefa. Ribose likhona i-molecule ye-RNA futhi nucleotide deoxyribose ezikuyi-DNA. Ngenxa yalokho, indima begazi carbohydrate umzimba womuntu owenziwe kahle ababandakanyeka kwetinhlavu amayunithi ufuzo - izakhi zofuzo kanye zofuzo.

pentose okuyisibonelo equkethe iqembu aldehyde futhi okusakazekile umbuso plant xylose (eziqukethwe neziqu kanye imbewu), i-alpha-arabinose (egcinwe ezinsinini zemithi yezithelo itshe). Ngakho, ukusatshalaliswa futhi indima begazi carbohydrate emzimbeni izitshalo ephakeme inkulu ngokwanele.

Kuyini oligosaccharides

Uma izinsalela yezinhlayiya ka monosaccharides, ezifana glucose noma fructose, xhumanisa ngezibopho covalent, le oligosaccharides kwakhiwa - carbohydrate polymeric. Iqhaza carbohydrate emzimbeni kokubili izitshalo nezilwane nhlobonhlobo. Lokhu kuyiqiniso ikakhulukazi ngokuphathelene disaccharides. Okuvame kakhulu phakathi kwabo kukhona sucrose, i-lactose, maltose futhi trehalose. Ngakho, sucrose, eyaziwa nangokuthi umhlanga noma i-sugar beet, eziqukethwe izitshalo njengoba isixazululo futhi agcinwe ku izimpande zabo noma neziqu. Hydrolysis engqamuzaneni kumiswa ne-glucose fructose. Ubisi ushukela, lactose kuyinto okuvela ezilwaneni. Kwabanye abantu, kukhona ukungabekezelelani kule ketshezi elihlobene ne hyposecretion enzyme lactase, okuyinto ephula phansi galactose ubisi noshukela kanye glucose. Indima ukuphila umzimba carbohydrate ahlukahlukene. Ngokwesibonelo, trehalose disaccharide, eyakhiwa izinsalela ezimbili glucose, ingxenye hemolymph ka ezinamagobolondo, izicabucabu, izinambuzane. Iphinde kwenzeka kumaseli isikhunta futhi abanye ulwelwe.

Enye disaccharide - Maltose, noma lwemithombo ushukela, kuqukethwe caryopses zebhali noma rye e ukuhluma yabo, kuba molecule ehlanganisa izinsalela ezimbili glucose. Lakhiwa ukubola yemifino noma isilwane isitashi. Emathunjini amancane wabantu nezilwane ezincelisayo maltose wajinge wanamatsela ngu enzyme - maltase. Uma engekho yayo juice pancreatic ibonakala zokugula kubangelwa ukungabekezelelani ekudleni isitashi glycogen noma nemifino imikhiqizo. Kulokhu, ukudla akhethekile sengezwe ekudleni enzyme uqobo.

carbohydrate ayinkimbinkimbi ngokwemvelo

Ziyakwazi yande kakhulu, ikakhulukazi izwe yemifino, kukhona biopolymers futhi abe nesisindo yamangqamuzana okusezingeni eliphezulu. Ngokwesibonelo, isitashi kuba 800 000, futhi uginindela - 1 600 000. Lokhu polysaccharides kuhluke indlela yokwakheka monomers, polymerization degree, futhi uchungechunge ubude. Ngokungafani ushukela elula oligosaccharides okuyinto zitholakala kalula oncibilikayo emanzini futhi abe ukunambitheka elimnandi, polysaccharides hydrophobic futhi kunganambitheki. Cabangela indima carbohydrate umzimba womuntu ngokuthi isibonelo glycogen - isitashi yezilwane. It is kuhlelwe umqondo kusuka ne-glucose agodliwe e hepatocytes futhi lwamathambo imisipha amaseli, lapho okuqukethwe kwawo kabili kunaleyo isibindi. Ngu kumiswa glycogen nazo uyakwazi amafutha ongama, neurocytes futhi ama-macrophage. Enye polysaccharide - yemifino isitashi iwumkhiqizo photosynthesis futhi ikhiqizwa plastids aluhlaza.

Kusukela ekuqaleni impucuko womuntu, abahlinzeki oyinhloko isitashi babe izitshalo ezibalulekile: irayisi, amazambane, ummbila. Zisese ngesisekelo ekudleni iningi labantu Emhlabeni. Yingakho kuba carbohydrate yigugu kangaka. Indima carbohydrate umzimba, njengoba sesibonile, kwisicelo sabo njengoba ndaba amandla abalambele futhi ngokushesha siyagwinyeka organic.

Kukhona iqembu polysaccharides okuyizinto monomers asidi i-hyaluronic izinsalela. Ziyakwazi ngokuthi pectins futhi zokwakha zezitshalo amaseli. Ikakhulukazi ecebile kubo apula ikhasi, beetroot uginindela. izinto yeselula pectins alawule ingcindezi intracellular - turgor. Embonini confectionery, bajwayele njengoba gelling futhi ukuqina ejenti ekukhiqizeni eliphezulu izinhlobonhlobo lwebhece nojeli. Ukudla lisetshenziswa njengedivaysi izinto eziphila abakhuthele is deducing kahle ubuthi ikholoni.

Kuyini glycolipids

Kuyinto iqembu ezithakazelisayo compounds eyinkimbinkimbi carbohydrate kanye amafutha ezisesandleni izicubu sezinzwa. Siqukethe ngobuchopho umgogodla ezincelisayo. Glycolipids atholakala ukubunjwa cell ulwelwesi. Ngokwesibonelo, ama-bacterium zinengxenye cell-cell oxhumana. Ezinye zalezi compounds iwukuba antigen (izinto ukubona Landsteiner AB0 uhlelo lwegazi). Ngo amaseli zezilwane, izitshalo kanye abantu, ngaphandle glycolipids, abakhona futhi abahlukene molecule amafutha. Zenza ngokuyinhloko amandla umsebenzi. Lapho cleavage elilodwa igremu fat 38,9 kJ eneji ikhishwe. isakhiwo umsebenzi (ingxenye ulwelwesi cell) ukuze lipids nawo abangawabheki. Ngakho, le misebenzi yenziwa carbohydrate kanye amafutha. indima yabo emzimbeni kuphezulu kakhulu.

Indima ukudla okumahhadla nomoya-lipids emzimbeni

Ngo amaseli kwabantu nezilwane kungabonakala nasemkhakheni interconversions ka polysaccharides namafutha ezenzeka ngenxa umzimba. Ososayensi futhi izazi wathola ukuthi engayitholi ngokweqile ukudla okunesitashi kuholela ekuqongeleleni fat. Uma umuntu iziyaluyalu kwamanyikwe ngokuya ngabodwa noma Amylase kuholela ukuphila umzimba, isisindo lingaba likhulu kakhulu. Kubalulekile nokukhumbula ukuthi sinqamukile ukudla carbohydrate-ocebile phansi ikakhulu e-duodenum ibe yi-glucose. Yena ugxile capillary ye villi emathunjini amancane futhi zibekwe isibindi nemisipha glycogen. Lapho lokushintshisana kakhulu izinto emzimbeni, kulapho-ke ihlukaniselwe glucose. ke bese kusetshenziswa njengendawo amangqamuzana ayinhloko, indaba lisebenza. Lolu lwazi inikeza impendulo yombuzo nendima eyadlalwa carbohydrate, umzimba womuntu.

Meaning of glycoproteins

Compounds aleli qembu elithi izinto omelelwa carbohydrate eziyinkimbinkimbi + amaprotheni. Ziyakwazi ngokuthi glycoconjugates. Lokhu omzimba, ama-hormone, ulwelwesi isakhiwo. Popular izifundo kwamakhemikhali batholé ukuthi uma glycoproteins kugucula bomdabu yayo (zemvelo) isakhiwo, kuholela ukuthuthukiswa lezi zifo eziyinkimbinkimbi njengesifuba somoya, isifo samathambo, umdlavuza. Indima glycoconjugates e umzimba cell kuphezulu. Ngokwesibonelo, ama-interferon zivimbela ukuphindwaphindwa amagciwane, immunoglobulin, ayisiza ukuvikela umzimba ekulweni namagciwane. Amaprotheni egazi futhi basonta leli qembu izinto. Zinikeza Ukuvikelwa futhi ukugcina kumthamo izakhiwo. Zonke imisebenzi engenhla kuqinisekiswa yokuthi indima bokuphila carbohydrate emzimbeni wehlukile futhi kubaluleke kakhulu.

Kuphi futhi kanjani akhiwa carbohydrate

abahlinzeki Major ushukela elula eziyinkimbinkimbi - isitshalo green: ulwelwe spore ephakeme, gymnosperms futhi zezimbali. Bonke aqukethe lo mbala chlorophyll amaseli. He is ingxenye thylakoid - takhiwo chloroplast. usosayensi Russian KA Timiryazev wafunda inqubo ye-photosynthesis, okuholela carbohydrate kumiswa. Iqhaza carbohydrate emzimbeni zalesi sihlahla ukunqwabelana isitashi esithelweni, imbewu kanye ama, okusho, izitho vegetative. photosynthesis mshini kunalokho xaka futhi siqukethe uchungechunge ukusabela enzymatic letentiwako kokubili ukukhanya futhi ebumnyameni. Glucose is kuhlelwe umqondo kusuka carbon dioxide ngaphansi isenzo enzyme. eziphilayo Heterotrophic zisebenzisa izitshalo eziluhlaza njengoba wokudla namandla. Ngakho-ke, izitshalo kukhona isixhumanisi kuqala zonke amaketanga ukudla futhi zibizwa ngokuthi abakhiqizi.

Amaseli we heterotrophic eziphilayo carbohydrate kuhlelwe iziteshi bushelelezi (agranular) reticulum endoplasmic. Khona-ke bajwayele njengoba amandla nezinto zokwakha. Ngo plant cells carbohydrate ngaphezu kwalokho kwakheka Golgi, bese uya ukwakha cellulosic cell udonga. Ngo inqubo ukugaya kwakwakhe isilwane yezilwane ezinomgogodla ecebile carbohydrate, kancane zehlukaniswe emlonyeni esiswini. dissimilation Main ukusabela okufanayo kwenzeka duodenum. Njengoba injena juice pancreatic equkethe Amylase enzyme uhlaba isitashi ukuba glucose. Njengoba kuye kwashiwo phambilini, i-glucose is angena igazi emathunjini amancane futhi basakaza phezu wonke amaseli. Lapha isetshenziswa njengoba umthombo energy kanye izinto ezihlelekile. Lokhu kuwachaza kahle indima ukuthi carbohydrate ukudlala emzimbeni.

Nadmembrannye izakhiwo amaseli heterotrophic

Ziyakwazi nobuntu izilwane kanye nesikhunta. Ukwakheka kwamakhemikhali Iinhlangano yamangqamuzana zalezi zakhiwo amelwa yingxube njenge lipids, amaprotheni kanye carbohydrate. Iqhaza carbohydrate emzimbeni - ke ehilelekile amandla umzimba futhi isakhiwo ulwelwesi. Ngo amaseli kwabantu nezilwane abe ingxenye ethile kwesakhiwo ngokuthi glycocalyx. Lokhu mncane ebusweni ungqimba sakhiwa glycolipids futhi glycoproteins elihlobene ne-ulwelwesi cytoplasmic. Inikeza isixhumanisi ngqo ngaphandle amaseli. Nangu eza bezibona ezishukumisa futhi ukugaya extracellular. Ngenxa carbohydrate yabo igobolondo amaseli banamathelane obumba Indwangu. Lesi senzakalo ngokuthi adhesion. Siphinde engeza ukuthi "imisila" of carbohydrate molecule wathola phezu cell kanye baqondiswa e uketshezi interstitial.

Elinye iqembu eziphilayo heterotrophic - isikhunta apharathasi Ubuye ebusweni, ngokuthi udonga cell. Kuhlanganisa ushukela eziyinkimbinkimbi - chitin, glycogen. Ezinye izinhlobo isikhunta futhi kunama-carbohydrate encibilikayo ezifana trehalose, ngokuthi mushroom ushukela.

Ezilwaneni unicellular ezifana ciliates, ebusweni ungqimba - pellicle iqukethe izakhiwo oligosaccharide ne amaprotheni lipids. Ezinye pellicle elula mncane ngokwanele futhi akuvimbeli ushintsho esimeni sokwakheka komzimba. Kodwa abanye-ke sikhula futhi sikhula njengoba zempi, ethwele umsebenzi zokuzivikela.

Plant cell odongeni

Ibuye ibe esiningi carbohydrate, ikakhulukazi i-cellulose eqoqwe njengoba izinyanda imicu. Letakhi yakha uzimele, egxilile matrix colloidal. It ngokuyinhloko oligosaccharides futhi polysaccharides. Izindonga cell lamaseli yemifino kungaba lignificated. Kulokhu, izikhala phakathi imishayo zigcwele nezinye carbohydrate cellulose - lignin. It sithuthukisa umsebenzi esekelwa ulwelwesi cell. Ngokuvamile, ikakhulukazi izitshalo zisetshenziswa ligneous, olwelwesini ehlanganisa cellulose camera izidakamizwa amafutha-like - suberin. It kuvimbela ingress amanzi phakathi kwezicubu isitshalo, ngakho amaseli ezihleli afa ngokushesha off futhi imbozwe ungqimba kukakhokho kuqhubeke.

Kafushane, sibona ukuthi udonga isitshalo yengqamuzana carbohydrate kuhlobene kanye amafutha. indima yabo phototrophs umzimba phansi kusukela izakhiwo glycolipid nokuhlinzeka umsebenzi ukusekela kanye zokuzivikela. Sizokwenza ukufunda ezihlukahlukene carbohydrate, ethize embusweni Monera eziphilayo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa prokaryotes, ezifana amagciwane. ulwelwesi lwawo oluqinile iqukethe carbohydrate - murein. Kuye isakhiwo kobuso apharathasi sehlukaniswe amagciwane Gram-HIV futhi igremu-HIV.

Isakhiwo iqembu lesibili kuba yinkimbinkimbi. Lezi amabhaktheriya babe izingqimba ezimbili: plastic futhi kube lukhuni. Owokuqala uqukethe mucopolysaccharides, isb murein. molecule ayo ngendlela izakhiwo inethiwekhi enkulu, ukwakha capsule emhlabeni iseli virus. Isendlalelo wesibili siqukethe peptidoglycan - polysaccharides lemagalagala amaprotheni.

iseli odongeni lipopolysaccharides kwenze amagciwane ukunamathela ngokuqinile substrates ahlukahlukene, ezifana izinyo koqweqwe lwawo noma eukaryotic cell ulwelwesi. Ngaphezu kwalokho, glycolipids ukukhuthaza adhesion amaseli legciwane nomunye. Ngakho ezakhiwe, isib, streptococci uchungechunge cluster staphylococci, ngaphezu kwalokho, izinhlobo ezithile prokaryotes babe ezengeziwe mucosa - peplos. Iqukethe ukubunjwa yayo le polysaccharides futhi wabhubhisa kalula bemisebe kanzima noma amakhemikhali athile ezifana nemithi.