Izincwadi zokuqala. Incwadi yokuqala Russian ezinyathelisiwe. Incwadi yokuqala eyanyatheliswa

Indaba le ncwadi kuyathakazelisa kakhulu. Konke kwaqala emuva eMesopotamiya iminyaka acishe abe yizinkulungwane ezinhlanu ezedlule. Incwadi yokuqala sengathi kuncane kakhulu abafana nge zezinhlobo yesimanje. Lawa kwakungamadodana ezibhebheni zobumba ezazinemithetho isicelo ukubhala nge-cuneiform izimpawu waseBhabhiloni usebenzisa izinduku ngensimbi. Iningi lalaba bantu lihlale amarekhodi babe yasekhaya ngokwemvelo, kodwa archeologists nenhlanhla uthole incazelo ebalulekile yomlando izenzakalo, tinsumansumane, tinganekwane. Okhokho bethu wabhalela ipuleti ngamunye onjalo izikhathi ezimbili noma ezintathu, okwesula kalula ngaphambili olotshiwe. Izincwadi zokuqala eBhabhiloni eziningi, futhi ngezinye izikhathi inqwaba yamakhasi ubumba yokuqala, ibekwe ngebhokisi lamapulangwe, wakhonza ezinsukwini ubudala esibophezelayo.

Okunabileko kuyinto wezincwadi omkhulu inkosi yase-Asiriya-Ashurbanipal. Bekuyindzawo ukugcina amashumi ezinkulungwane ezincwadi futhi ulwazi emikhakheni eyehlukene. Ngeshwa, ukuze ezisekhona akubona bonke zobuciko esiyingqayizivele.

emisha waseGibhithe

Okwamanje kunzima kakhulu ukuthola umuntu owazi lutho mayelana namasiko yaseGibithe lasendulo. Iningi lethu khumbulani ngokushesha kuza Papyrus - iphepha sibonelo. Esekhulile sibaningi ogwini saseNayile okukhulu. Neziqu izitshalo wanqunywa zibe emapheshana, omisiwe futhi ethe njo ndawonye. Phela lezi manipulations papyrus ironed ngokucophelela amatshe ukuze ulinike olubushelelezi.

Yiqiniso, i-inki ke, akekho owayazi ukuthi kungani imibhalo yesandla yokuqala adalwe kusetshenziswa uyinki zemifino. Ngohlobo Lomuntu Okufanele Ube ngepeni wakhonza njengephayona mhlanga mncane. Abantu baseGibhithe lasendulo kuchasiselwe othomathikhi rekhoda ngepeni kokusunguliwe kuqala. Izingcweti eqala ukuthululela upende ku ngomhlanga eziyize, ukuhlinzeka ukusakaza okuqhubekayo likayinki sibonelo.

Ukuze kube lula, ekupheleni ncwadi-papyrus omunye tape ukuthi enamathiselwe induku, futhi bekubonakala nilimaza roll uqobo. Izinkuni noma isikhumba Imilandu munye.

Egypt akayedwa ...

Ngokwemvelo, incwadi sidalwe hhayi kuphela kuleli zwe koFaro. AmaNdiya, isibonelo, izincwadi zokuqala kuqoqwa amahlamvu esundu, abese ithungwe ngokunembile futhi linamathele esibophezelayo kwezinkuni. Ngeshwa, ngenxa imililo eminingi kanye nezinhlekelele zemvelo, ikhophi eyodwa ngalezo zikhathi asizange sisinde.

BaseYurophu kwesokunxele umlando wabo yesikhumba. Leli phepha ethulwa-prototype ye isikhumba ziphathwe ngokukhethekile. Ukusungulwa Chinese iphepha ukubhala ubeke amapuleti benziwe ngoqalo umoba. Ngokusho kwenye hypothesis (okuyinto kancane kuphela eziqinisekisiwe), izakhamuzi Celestial kuhoxiswe izinhlamvu usebenzisa ifindo iboshelwe ngendlela ekhethekile. Nokho, le nguqulo has a lot of ubufakazi elingacacisiwe, ngakho-ke cabanga kunengqondo, singakwazi okwamanje.

imithombo Iningi abathi lokhu umbumbi iphepha - Cai Lun - wahlala eJapane yikhulu ngomnyaka wesihlanu BC. Phakathi namakhulu eminyaka ambalwa alandela kwenziwa iphepha iresiphi okuyinto, kuyimfihlo esiqinile. Ukuze ukuvezwa kwalo ezisengozini isijeziso esibi.

Bona wayevelele Kulokhu nama-Arabhu: abamele abantu, kwabokuqala akha yabo amaphethini iphepha, okusikhumbuza version esimanjemanje kakhulu. Indaba eziyisisekelo sagezwa uvolo. Lapho gluing ngabanye amashidi etholwe imiqulu eside (kufika ku amamitha amahlanu).

Ngemva ukwamukelwa kobuKristu kanye ukudalwa i Slavic lesibhalwako Ulimi eRussia, futhi, oboné izincwadi zokuqala ngesandla.

Inguquko kumshini

It yasungulwa omncane wokunyathelisa ukuphrinta kabili eChina eYurophu Ephakathi. Izazi-mlando namanje ngeke afinyelele kusivumelwano ku waba kanjani futhi nini yashicilela incwadi ethi lokuqala olunyathelisiwe. Ngokwemibiko ethile, amaShayina ngikudalile umshini sokusungula e 581 BC. Ngokusho kweminye imithombo, lokhu kwenzeka phakathi 936 th futhi 993 ngonyaka th. Kulokhu, onyathelisiwe ncwadi, usuku lokuqala indalo, okuyinto ibhalwe, yanyatheliswa ngo-868. Kwaba ikhophi esiqondile iDiamond Sutra Xylographic Buddha.

AbaseYurophu ube uyise wabo wokunyathelisa. Lokhu Johann Guttenberg. Nguye owasungula kwemishini yokunyathelisa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, Guttenberg yasungulwa yesibhali (isenzakalo esibalulekile esenzeka ngo 1440). Incwadi yokuqala eyanyatheliswa wayesekhona okufana kakhulu ngesandla, nge ezihlukahlukene yezicathulo, ikhava ngokucebile ukuhlotshiswa kanye ifonti eliqoshiwe. Ekuqaleni eshicilelwe izincwadi ayebiza kakhulu, ngoba ukudala kubo kwaba nzima kakhulu ngesandla.

Ingxenye ngekhulu nanhlanu yesibili kwaphawulwa ukusabalala ukuphrinta eYurophu. Ngakho, ngo-1465 yasungulwa workshop e-Italy. Ngo 1468, i-ukushicilela indlu lokuqala limiswa eSwitzerland, futhi 1470 - eFrance. Ngemva kweminyaka emithathu - ePoland, eHungary Belgium, eminyakeni emithathu kamuva - e-UK kanye Czech Republic. e-Sweden, futhi ngemva kweminyaka emine - - ePortugal ukuphrinta workshop e Denmark nase-Austria, e-1483 ke lavulwa ngo 1482. Ngo ukwakha emakethe ukuphrinta, futhi nalo mncintiswano labamemezeli elalilapho amashumi amabili eminyaka.

Isenzakalo esidume kunazo zonke wokunyathelisa endlini ngesikhathi kwakungekaNkulunkulu Aldus Manutius - sezifundo adumile Venice. Ngaphansi lokuhweba yakhe imisebenzi yashicilelwa ezinjalo abalobi enkulu njengoba u-Aristotle, uHerodotus, uPlato UPlutarch, Demosthenes futhi kaThucydides.

Ngokusho izindleko amabhuku kwehle ngcono inqubo zokunyathelisa. Lokhu negalelo elikhulu ekusakazweni isisindo ephepheni.

Incwadi yokuqala

David Invincible - sezibalo VI ekhulwini - okokuqala kwaba isifundo lapho imithetho izibalo amafomula zalotshwa. Okwamanje, kukhona liyincwadi eyingqayizivele e Matenadaran (Depository kwemibhalo yesandla yasendulo okwenziwa e Yerevan).

Ukuvela kwemibhalo birchbark

Incwadi yokuqala eRussia kwaba eziboshiwe birch ishidi. Ngakho ekhulwini XI-XV, okhokho bethu abangu ukushintshisana Imininingwane ngokubhala. Abavubukuli lokuqala lucky ngokwanele ukuze abone amagxolo birch ngo-1951 e Novgorod. AV Artsiholovsky ephethwe ukuthi uhambo abadumile bemivubukulo.

Izincwadi wadweba amagxolo, usebenzisa izinsimbi ezincane ezicijile noma ithambo Wand (pisalom). wathola Iningi birchbark amaphepha izinhlamvu yangasese. Kulezi zincwadi abantu ezithinta ezomnotho kanye ezifuywayo, ngibanika iziyalezo, uchaza ingxabano. Ezinye zazo ziqukethe imibhalo ezihlekisayo ongumlimi imibhikisho emelene ukubusa amakhosi asendulo, izinhlu imisebenzi, izindaba kusukela kwezepolitiki, intando.

Kusukela ngo-1951 kuya ku-1981, unyaka kwatholakala izincwadi phose abangamakhulu ayisithupha (kakhulu - Novgorod, izimo amaningi - e Vitebsk, Smolensk, Pskov futhi Staraya Russa).

Isebenza ngabaculi wesimanje

Ukuthi lo mbhalo wesandla onesihloko esithi "versification" ku Novosibirsk Isikhungo Umlando. Ubethula esandleni umvubukuli Natalia Zolnikova. Ngesisekelo wesandla baba amagxolo silky bewumsebenzi esihle kakhulu. Nokho, lena akuyona mshini lasendulo, futhi umsebenzi yesimanje. Incwadi wadala abakhileyo Old Engakholwa isiphetho, esisogwini Lower Yenisei. It kuvela ukuthi ezinsukwini zethu amagxolo liyasetshenziswa njengoba ephepheni.

Wesandla eRussia

Incwadi yokuqala isiRashiya, ivela ngepeni lwamaSlav lasendulo lalibizwa ngokuthi "Glagolitic Kiev amapheshana." It is wagomela ukuthi sidalwe eminyakeni engaba yinkulungwane edlule. Imibhalo emidala kunayo yonke wathola incwadi wesandla Russian - "Ostrom Gospel" - kuhlehlela emuva ekhulwini leshumi nanye.

Ukufika kombuso izitolo ukuphrinta

Izincwadi zokuqala ezinyathelisiwe e laseRussia aqala ukuvela ngemuva 1522 Ngalowo nyaka laqala ukusebenza indlu yokunyathelisa, elise Vilnius. Umqalisi yokutholakala walo wawenziwe Frantsisk Skorina - edume enlightener Belarusian. Ngaphambi kwalokho, wayesenalo kakade nesipiliyoni nemidwebo: wanyathelisa "IHubo" lesithupha ngo-August 1517. Kwaba e Prague, kuphi ngaleso sikhathi umholi omkhulu wahlala.

Incwadi yokuqala Russian ephrintiwe

Uhlelo eyabhalwa kuqala, eyakhishwa ngo-Russia, ubizwa ngokuthi "Umphostoli." Le ncwadi isonto, eyakhishwa ngo-dolobha e 1564. kumdlali - U-Ivan Fedorov. Ngaphezu kwalokho, le nqubo uPetru Mstislavets (ngesikhathi umfundi Fedorov). Kuyinto laba bantu phakade emlandweni njengoba umdali incwadi yokuqala Russian ezinyathelisiwe. edition abahlukile lalinabashumayeli 268 amashidi yokulinganisa 21h14 cm Ukusakazwa ngaleso sikhathi kwakuwukuthola umxhwele -. Kancane amakhophi esingaphansi anamabini amawaka. Okwamanje kutholakala 61 encwadini.

Ukufunda kuqala incwadi - yini leyo nto?

Incwadi yokuqala Russian ezinyathelisiwe, sibonga ngalo okhokho bethu yingcweti kufundza nekubhala, kakhulu, sakhishwa master Ivanom Fedorovym. It kwenzeka eminyakeni engaphezu kwengu emine edlule. Yayiqukethe imithetho eyisisekelo lolimi, kanye aphorisms ezifundisayo, ahlakaniphile nezimfundiso.

Ukuvela primer

Incwadi kuyiphi kwakunokwenzeka ukuba uthole ulwazi, kwakungamadodana ohlonishwa kakhulu eRussia. Lezi, yebo, ezifakiwe, futhi kwenziwa. Yibona nabahleli eMoscow enkantolo zokunyathelisa. Incwadi ethi The izingane kuqala yakhishwa ngo-1634. igama Ezazimzungezile - "Bona Primer lwamaSlav ulimi, okungukuthi ukuqala izimfundiso detem hotyashe lifundisa ukufundwa kwemiBhalo." Umbhali umsebenzi - Basil Burtsev-Protopopov.

Ukudalwa Russian primer lokuqala anemidwebo wahlanganyela Carion Istomin - Monk, uthisha kanye imbongi. Wenza konke okusemandleni abo: incwadi ngayinye kwakulandelwa isithombe mayelana nale ndaba, waqala ngaleli incwadi. Incwadi kusivumela ukufunda isi-Polish, isi-Latin futhi zamagama ngesiGreki, futhi kwakungekho cishe akukho imibhalo izindikimba zenkolo kuwo. I eseyintsha kwaba iqiniso lokuthi le ncwadi senzelwe izingane zabo bobubili ubulili ( "Izinceku" futhi "ntombazana").

Ukuvela bookplates

Incwadi yokuqala Russian ephrintiwe nge nohlamvu olukhethekile olungu-ekhombisa ubulunga umtapo ezithile, wabona ukukhanya ekhulwini weshumi nesishiyagalombili. Ngaleso sikhathi, i-ngobukhulu incwadi amaqoqo kungaba ozibongayo abangane sikaPeter Omkhulu, kuhlanganise Bruce J. no D. Golitsyn. Wonke amakhophi aprintiwe amaqoqo zabo gqizisa emincanyana Isitembu futhi font design.

ongakhetha mini

Igama incwadi yokuqala eyanyatheliswa nendawo 6.5 ngo 7.5 amasentimitha - "Ubuciko wokuba okuhlekisayo ingxoxo." ikhophi abahlukile yanyatheliswa ngo-1788. Ngo-1885 Krylov inganekwane kumbhali eziye zanyatheliswa komagazini incwadi nenkundla ejwayelekile Isitembu. Ukusetha okubhaliwe ngaphansi kwegama Diamond wakhethwa. Ingabe lokho igama incwadi yokuqala eyanyatheliswa yobukhulu amancane, eshicilelwe eSoviet Union obaziyo? Kwaba uMthethosisekelo RSFSR. It yanyatheliswa ngo-1921 e Kineshma. Usayizi Book - emithathu nengxenye ukuze ngamasentimitha amahlanu.

Okwamanje, kunezinhlobo amabhuku miniature abangaphezu kwekhulu. ukuqoqwa enkulu - usebenza nge Pushkin - ke izincwadi, anamanci mahlanu. Ngalokhu rekhodi amavesi ivolumu ngakho ngevolumu 0,064 cubic metres. mm. kumdlali - umculi Folk M. Maslyuk kusukela Zhmerinka (Vinnitsa esifundeni, Ukraine.).

zezinhlobo giant

I enkulu ncwadi yasendulo wesandla e-Armenia enesihloko esithi "Sermons Mushskogo sezindela." Lwenza kuleminyaka emibili iminyaka - kusukela 1200 kuze 1202-th. Incwadi isisindo amakhilogremu amabili lesikhombisa netinyanga letisitfupha. Usayizi futhi lihlaba umxhwele - 55,5 kuya 70,5 cm Ngokwesibonelo esiyingqayizivele siqukethe eziyisithupha amabili amashidi, ngalinye elikwazi usephendukele inyanga eyodwa ithole ubudala isikhumba .. Ngo 1204 lo mbhalo wesandla webiwa le Seljuks. namadarike engaphezu kwezinkulungwane ezine baye baqoqa wokuhlengwa izakhamuzi eziningi emizaneni Armenia (uqaphele: eyodwa lwesiliva okulingana 4,65 g esiliva). Bangaphezu kuka-eminyaka ayisikhombisa, lo mbhalo wesandla kwaba edolobheni sezindela amakhowe, e Western Armenia. Ngo-1915 yena bathuthela le Matenadaran egumbini e Yerevan. Kwenzeka ngoba ukucekelwa Turkish, ngenxa lapho imisebenzi yezandla yi esiyingqayizivele lokkhu ubhujiswe.

iBhayibheli itshe

Incwadi i ukusebenza engavamile kungabonwa ngesikhathi ehambele State Museum of Art, elise Georgia. Kwasukasukela master ezibaziweyo izigcawu amabili kusukela okusha futhi Old eTestamente ukuba Slabs zamatshe. Lona Ngokwesibonelo kuphela. I mshini satholakala Isi-Abkhazian alpine emzaneni Tsebelda.

isimo yamanje

Ngo nineties kwekhulu lamashumi amabili encwadini empeleni waphawula ushintsho ashukumisayo. Lokhu kwakubangelwa ezenzeka izinguquko Russian kwezenhlalo, kwezombangazwe nakwezomnotho. Ngakho, embonini sokushicilela wayengomunye walaba amagatsha yokuqala, elaqala kwathatha umnotho emakethe. Ibhuku ibhekwa njengento umsebenzi ebhizinisi. Yingakho kwakubalulekile inqubomgomo yombuso ithintwasingxivizo emkhakheni isiko futhi ibhizinisi njengoba kuba ephambili.

Ngo-1990, ukushicilelwa nokusatshalaliswa izincwadi kwaba ibhizinisi inzuzo. Incazelo ilula: izwe ebhekene Ukushoda okukhulu kugcwele lezo zimpahla. Nokho, lokhu akuzange kuhlale isikhathi eside. Ngemva kweminyaka engaba mihlanu, ezimakethe eyayisuke ayegcwele. Abathengi waqala ukukhetha izincwadi ngokucophelela okukhulu. Njengoba umncintiswano baba indima ebaluleke ngokwengeziwe ukudlala izici ezifana lomkhiqizo nedumela abakhiqizi kanye nabasabalalisi. Isikhathi esibekiwe libhekene ekukhuleni share zezihloko elihunyushwe. Ngakho, ngo-1993 abalobi angaphandle yencwadi cishe amahlanu amaphesenti yonke imikhiqizo ukushicilela.

Namuhla kukhona izithakazelo abafundi inconstancy '. Uma esikhathini Soviet, imisebenzi omunye umlobi yayithandwa isikhathi eside, manje uhlu engcono nabathengisi siyashintsha ngejubane breakneck. Lokhu kwaba nomthelela iqhakazile izimbali ukwehluka egcwele imicabango yabantu, kanye nezinto ozikhethayo yezakhamuzi.